1.1.2.3. Aristophanes (5th-4th centuries BC).
We can find in the comedies of Aristophanes, a contemporary of Socrates, some statements on poetry similar to those already seen. For instance, we may look for them in the parabasis of the comedies, which is a choral piece in the middle of the work where the author makes the fiction pause and speaks directly to the public through the chorus, commenting on some current issue. In the parabasis of Aristophanes' comedy Frogs , the chorus invokes the muse to preside its performance, and to infuse delight to the words. The choregus begins his first speech with these words: "It is proper for the sacred chorus to be useful to the city with his counsels and his teachings." He then goes on to expound Aristophanes' political views to the audience, giving practical advice on how to deal with specific political issues and leaders. It is hardly surprising that the Old Comedy, deeply satirical and involved with contemporary events, should represent itself as a form of social and political action. On the other hand, the invocation to the muses in this text strikes us as already highly conventional.
But there are even more interesting theoretical views in Frogs, which can be considered as Aristophanes' poetic manifesto. The action takes place in Hell, and it involves an effeminate Dionysus who judges the relative merits of Aeschylus, holding at that time the throne as the best tragedian of Hell, and Euripides, who has just died and is challenging his rights. It is clear that Aristophanes has some definite views on the merits of each tragedian, for Euripides is abjectly defeated, and Sophocles occupies the throne while Aeschylus returns in triumph to a second life in the world above. What is most significant here is that the play is already dealing with a parody of critical procedures. Parodies make sense only if the thing parodied is well known to the public. The fact that this kind of parody could be presented successfuly onstage shows the interest arisen by such critical evaluations of plays, in the form of literary contests. It was customary in Greece to hold theatrical performances during the religious festivals. In fact, the origins of both tragedy and comedy can ultimately be traced to religious ceremonies. There were competitions between plays, and a prize was given every year to the best tragedy and the best comedy. Here is a fragment of Frogs which satirizes the critical procedures of the age:
Xanthias - So, the contest is going to take place?
Servant - Yes, by Zeus, in a short while. The battle will start right here. Their poetry is going to be weighed on the scales.
Xanthias - What! Is the tragedy going to be weighed with all rigour?
Servant - They will bring rulers, and squares to measure the verses, and quadrilateral molds . . . and diameters and wedges. For Euripides says that tragedies must be checked line by line.
It is difficult to deduce from such a parody which were the actual criteria used in judging the value of a play, but there is certainly a rejection of the artificial and finicky procedures and rules used by some critics--in Frogs we witness the first critique of criticism.
As to the aim of poetry, Euripides declares in the play that poets are to be admired for their wit and their teaching, and also because they make men better. But his own tragedies are found to be at fault according to these rules, and in the end it is Aeschylus who is to return to the world above to save the city with his good counsel and to instruct the fools. The contest between the poets is not however much concerned with such weighty questions. For the most part, one poets upbraids the other because of his faults of thought and style as they show in small quotations from their poems which are used as touchstones. So we might add "skill in the craft" as a further condition required of a good poet by Aristophanes. We have here again the old pair "to teach" versus "to delight." Euripides is found to be too effeminate, finicky and at times immoral, while Aeschylus is found to be manly, violent and passionate, he is always shouting "like an oak on fire." Nevertheless, from the discussion we see that Aristophanes is also aware of the defects of Aeschylus and the merits of Euripides--and Aristophanes is thoroughly acquainted with the works of both of them. There is no talk of inspiration in the poets' contest. Dionysus speaks of the craft of the poets, and he purports that it can be weighed just "like cheese." In spite of the satire, the public and the judges of the times of Aristophanes, and Aristophanes himself, seem to share that view to some extent. We can imagine the surprisingly comical effect that Frogs must have had on its audience, when it located in Hell a satire of the kind of judgement the play itself was undergoing as it was being performed. Indeed, this comedy won the first prize in the year 405 BC.