1.3.6. Other Genres
1.3.6.1. Epic poetry
1.3.6.2. Comedy
1.3.6.3. Lyric poetry and other poetic genres
1.3.6.1. Epic Poetry
1.3.6.1.1. Definition
1.3.6.1.2. Plot
1.3.6.1.3. Character, diction and thought
1.3.5.1.4. Tragedy and epic poetry
1.3.6.1.1. Definition
Epic poetry agrees with tragedy insofar as it is an imitation in verse of characters of a higher type. They differ, in that epic poetry admits but one kind of meter, and is narrative in form. . . .
Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to tragedy. Whoever, therefore, knows what is good or bad in tragedy, knows also about epic poetry. All the elements of an epic poem are found in tragedy, but the elements of a tragedy are not all found in the epic poem. (Poetics V)
It may be as Aristotle says, but still we would be better off if he had been a little more explicit on which were the elements common to both tragedy and epic. We may include in this list the first four component parts of tragedy: plot, character, thought and diction. Spectacle and music belong to tragedy alone. But then Aristotle goes on to qualify this general statement for each of the common elements.
1.3.6.1.2. Plot
In general, the requirements for the plot of epic poems are similar to those of tragedies: they may be organically unified, or episodic, if there is not one central action but a series of unconnected happenings, etc. There are, however, some differences between the two genres. We have already mentioned that the length of the story in epic poetry is not subjected to the limits of time and place which dramatic representation requires. The narrative nature of epic poetry also favours the use of the marvellous and even the inexplicable without any sense of incoherence. Also, more episodes may be included in an epic poem, so that most epic poems contain enough matter for several tragedies. The epic poem must have a limited length, but unlimited fictional time may be covered by it. This is the remote Aristotelian origin of the neoclassical "unity of time":
tragedy endeavors, as far as possible, to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun, whereas the epic action has no limits of time. (Poetics V)
Let us note that the tone is descriptive, not prescriptive, and moreover the rule is heavily qualified.
Besides a greater length of the action, we have a further temporal possibility peculiar to epic poetry. This is Aristotle's sole and very vague reference to something like a "unity of space" in drama:
In tragedy we cannot imitate several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time; we must confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by the players. But in epic poetry, owing to the narrative form, many events simultaneously transacted can be presented; and these, if relevant to the subject, add mass and dignity to the poem. (Poetics XXIV)
But Aristotle is unwilling to abandon the rule of the unity of action, even though he relaxes it, and he requires that the episodes be relevant to the plot. He praises Homer in this respect, for the concentrated action of his poems as compared to the rambling of other epic poets. Indeed, Homer is far superior to them in all respects.
Again, epic poetry must have as many kinds as tragedy: it must be simple, or complex, or "ethical," or pathetic. . . . In all these respects Homer is our earliest and sufficient model. Indeed each of his poems has a twofold character. The Iliad is at once simple and "pathetic," and the Odyssey complex (for recognition scenes run through it), and at the same time "ethical." (Poetics XXIV)
There is no indication in the Poetics about the possible role of catharsis in epic poetry. In dealing with tragedy, Aristotle pointed out that it was the effect of plot and characters, so it may seem reasonable to suppose that it plays a part in epic poetry insomuch as the epic plot and characters are similar to the tragic plot and characters. However, Aristotle seems to consider the concentration of the tragic plot as the best means to achieve catharsis; epic catharsis must be supposed to be a downgraded, or rather, an undeveloped form of tragic catharsis.
1.3.6.1.3. Character, Diction and Thought
Aristotle does not say anything specific on the characters of epic poetry. We may suppose them to be submitted to the same requirements as those of tragedy, though the preference for sad endings and for flawed characters is not mentioned in the case of epic. This shadow of a difference in Aristotle will be expanded later on by Neoclassical epic theory: the epic genre becomes celebratory; the heroes are triumphant and idealized, and an opposition with respect to tragic heroes and plots is drawn.
Diction and thought must be "of good quality". We have already mentioned Aristotle's idea that diction admits more elaboration in epic poetry than in tragedy. But, even within the epic poem,
the diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action, where there is no expression of character or thought. For, conversely, character and thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over-brilliant. (Poetics XXIV)
Neoclassical theory will specify that it is in descriptive passages that the language must be ornamented and elaborated without interfereing with character or narrative: these passages will become set pieces of florid speech.
1.3.6.1.4. Tragedy and Epic Poetry
Aristotle devotes the last chapter of the Poetics to a comparison of the relative merits of tragedy and epic poetry. From this comparison it becomes clear that he does not value much the dramatic character of tragedy in itself, in the sense of performance on stage. What he values is the greater concentration which this dramatic quality gives to tragedies, and the more intense effect which results. He concludes that "tragedy is the higher art, as attaining its end more perfectly" (Poetics XXVI). This was predictable from his perfunctory treatment of epic poetry, and his willingness to ascribe to the section on tragedy all the elements which are common to both. He is measuring epic poetry with dramatic standards, which is unfair. He neglects those elements which belong exclusively to narrative, and therefore it is not surprising that he concludes that drama is the better genre. Also, we should not forget that from Aristotle's historical perspective, tragedy was a fairly recent formal development (and therefore an "improvement" as opposed to the much older Homeric poems.
1.3.6.2. Comedy
Aristotle fails to deal with two of the genres with a story which emerge from the classification in Figure 9. He speaks about tragedy and serious epic poetry, but he barely mentions comic epic poetry. As for comedy itself, there is an almost general agreement that a second book of the Poetics, which has been lost, developed a theory of comedy. It may have dealt with comic epic poetry, too. There are nevertheless some references to comedy in the extant section of the Poetics. There is no definition comparable to that of tragedy, so that we do not know how far can the parallel with tragedy be pushed.
Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower typeænot, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists of some defect of ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain. (Poetics V)
This qualification that comedy does not deal with the painful or injurious is a further response to Plato. In his dialogue Philebus, Plato had spoken of the comic response as some kind of malicious joy or emotion of self-enhancement at the spectacle of obnoxious or harmful characters, those who in real life could hurt us, made innocuous on the stage. As in the case of tragedy, Aristotle is then asserting that the effect produced by comedy is not as direct and one-sided as Plato would have it.
It is evident that Aristotle would define comedy as a dramatic genre; it is probable that he should submit it to requirements of organic unity and concentration similar to the ones applied to tragedy, and that he would ascribe to it colloquial speech and metre. It is also probable that some form of catharsis should be included in the definition. It is to be noted that Aristotle is aware of a convergence of tragedy and comedy in the works of Euripides --the first sign of something like tragicomedies dissolving the rigid generical barriers.
The second book of the Poetics (if it ever existed) may be lost for good, but it is not altogether impossible that it has left some traces. Teophrastus, Aristotle's most important disciple, made some remarks on comedy and wrote a work on Characters, which was influential on the conception of comic types. We have also an anonymous Aristotelian treatise, date unknown, called the Tractatus Coislinianus, which develops a theory of comedy. Its definition of comedy includes a cathartic effect, and it runs thus:
Comedy is an imitation of an action that is ludicrous and imperfect (...) through pleasure and laughter effecting the purgation of the like emotions.
Some theorists find that this is a plausible Aristotelian theory; certainly it is a response to Plato and it is symmetrical with the definition of tragedy. Others really do not see why pleasure and laughter ought to be driven out; we might nevertheless relate this to the Aristotelian theory of control over the emotions. The Tractatus Coislinianus also contrasts comedy, which is subject to the law of probability and deals with universals, and lampoon, which deals with particulars. The most evident relationship of this theory and Greek comedy is the tendency to a characterization based on clearly defined, conceptualized types. The Tractatus Coislinianus makes some references to three specific types of comic characters: the impostor (alazon), the self-deprecating man (eiron ) and the buffoon (bomolochos ). Teophrastus and Aristotle himself in his Ethics also favour this tendency to define clear-cut types.
Butcher has pointed out that the relationship of comedy and tragedy to the universal is not the same in Greek comedy (although this is not to be found in Greek theory). "Whereas comedy tends to merge the individual in the type, tragedy manifests the type through the individual". Tragedies told traditional stories featuring well-known individual characters. Comedies, on the other hand, had the double characteristic of using invented (though predictable) plots and typical characters. We shall see in the work of later critics how typicality and predictability are indissociable from comedy.
1.3.6.3. Lyric Poetry and Other Poetic Genres
Aristotle does not speak of lyrical poetry as a whole in the sense we use the word at present. Rather, he distinguishes several genres: nomic songs, dithyrambs, elegies, etc. But he does not deal with any of them. He seems to think that lyrical poetry is an inferior genre not worth his attention. This we might relate to a similar dismissal of the lyrical elements in the tragedies of Euripides and Agathon. There is another possibility: a part of the Poetics dealing with lyrical genres might have been lost. But from the general tone of the rest, this seems very unlikely.
In the same way he omits to deal with epigrammatic, elegiac, and didactic poetry, among other genres. None of these fit comfortably into his definition of poetry as "mimesis of men in action". This restrictive definition is of course a shortcoming, and we may say with justice that Aristotle is insensitive to these genres. But it has a justification: Aristotle sees poetry as a whole, a human activity which evolves spontaneously toward the state of maximum development of its possibilities, and therefore he is not afraid to rate genres against one another, discussing their specific virtues and their degree of development. His ultimate intent is to deal not with the different varieties of poetry, but with the essence of the art of poetry, which he sees embodied in tragedy.
1.3.7. Criticism
Chapter 25 of the Poetics is devoted to criticism. It is a metacritical study, since it attempts to study the criteria used by criticism. Most of it may seem trivial, as it consists in a refutation of current critical attitudes to poetry, a refutation which looks like plain common sense to us, but which is in fact the result of the theory of poetry which has been expounded in the previous chapters of the Poetics.
Aristotle sums up this chapter with a metacritical classification of possible grounds for a negative criticism of poetry:
Thus, there are five sources from which critical objections are drawn. Things are censured either as impossible, or irrational, or morally hurtful, or contradictory, or contrary to artistic correctness. The answers should be sought under the twelve heads above mentioned. (Poetics XXV)
These answers are: the artistic requirement of universalization, the legitimacy of using received opinion, foreign usage, metaphor, etc. This chapter may be considered to be the answer of literary theory to criticism, or , at least, to some kinds of criticism which do not have a sound theoretical basis.
The work of Aristotle as a whole may be consedered to be an attempt to develop a structural and metalinguistic approach to literature. Although it preserves a concern with valuation, its main thrust is towards the definition of theoretical possibilities and general laws. Some critics have spoken of Aristotle's sin of omission in relationship with lyric poetry and the inspirational element in literature. This is a fact. But it does not seem so important when we look at what Aristotle does say and the principles he establishes. We can barely recognize the aspect of criticism after Aristotle's work, if we compare it to its previous state. His is the most important single contribution to criticism in the whole history of the discipline.
1.3.8. The Aristotelian Heritage
The Poetics does not seem to have been widely known during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, but some of its material reached Horace through Neoptolemus. Horace's approach to poetry is vastly different: tragedy had virtually disappeared as a genre, and Horace sharply divides style from content. His formula "aut prodesse aut delectare" contrasts with Aristotle's refusal to force into a dichotomy the question of the ethical significance of poetry.
The Poetics was known to the Middle Ages mostly in the form of a commentary by the Muslim philosopher Averroes. Averroes' aproach was even more alien than Horace's to the spirit of the Poetics. The original text barely survives and is not widely known until in the XVIth century it is printed, commented and translated by Italian humanists like Scaliger and Castelvetro. It was they who developed the so-called "Aristotelian" rules, which often simplified and trivialized the concepts of the Poetics, giving them a normative and moralizing tone.
There is a strong reaction against Aristotle and his commentators at the end of the eighteenth century, with the Romantic movement. Longinus is then seen as the Classical forerunner of the new tendencies, which stress the active role of the artists. But several critical schools in the twentieth century have favoured a more impersonal, systematic and structural approach to literature and criticism which is strongly indebted to Aristotle's idea of a poetics. The Chicago school of critics (R.S. Crane, Wayne C. Booth), one of the most influential critical schools in the English-speaking world from the thirties on, presents itself as overtly neo-Aristotelian. And the structuralist movement in literature rescues the Aristotelian idea of poetics as a systematic study of the form of literature. The analytical concepts used by the structuralists often are developments and refinements of ideas originally stated in the Poetics.